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The Rajasthani oral narrative of Devn¡r¡ya¸

 Visual Narrative

The focus of this chapter shifts from an examination of the verbal narrative to the meanings of the visual narrative encompassed by the pa¤. At the beginning of Chapter Two it was pointed out that the pa¤ or rather "reading the pa¤" occupies a central position within the ritual and performative tradition of Devn¡r¡ya¸. Thus the term pa¤ v¡c¸o places the focus of a performance on the visual imagery of the pa¤. Thus the pa¤ by definition is composed of sets of images. But first we need to clarify what is meant by the word image. The common place understanding of image is that of a picture, a reflection, or a likeness. While the first two senses are applicable to a variety of examples, the last meaning of the word image as "likeness" has an overt religious connotation, and is directly derived from an idea expressed in Jewish-Christian theistic traditions:

This is the tradition which begins, of course, with the account of man's creation "in the image and likeness" of God. The words we now translate as "image" (the Hebrew tselem, the Greek eikon, and the Latin imago) are properly understood, as the commentators never tire of telling us, not as any material picture, but as an abstract, general, spiritual "likeness". ... "image" is to be understood not as "picture" but as "likeness", a matter of spiritual similarity.¹

But as pointed out in Chapter Two the images on the pa¤ are neither reflections nor representations of objects. On the contrary, they signify the "presence" of deities, people, animals, etc. The images are thus a concrete manifestation of Devn¡r¡ya¸, and other characters as well as objects portrayed on the pa¤. Thus even an understanding of image as spiritual similarity does not quite concur with the meaning of image suggested by the pa¤, which as already pointed out refers to the tangible existence of god, and not only to a similarity or likeness. The painted picture of Devn¡r¡ya¸ is therefore the equivalent of a "true image" in a very literal sense, whose radiance is revealed by the act of worship which includes the verbal text.²

Thus the images on the pa¤ are not a spiritual "likeness" nor are they a reflection of something nor are they simply pictures. It is only through entire context of the religious cult of Devn¡r¡ya¸ that the meaning of the images is revealed to us. To substitute what Mitchell (1987: 28) writes on the idea of the petroglyph³ with reference to the pa¤, we could similarly claim that:

The meaning of the picture does not declare itself by a simple and direct reference to the object it depicts. It may depict an idea, a person, a "sound image"..., or a thing. In order to know how to read it, we must know how it speaks, what is proper to say about it and on its behalf. The idea of the "speaking picture" which is often invoked to describe certain kinds of poetic presence or vividness on the one hand, and pictorial eloquence on the other hand, is not merely a figure for special effects in the arts, but lies at the common origin of writing and painting.

In this chapter I broaden the scope of this enquiry by asking in what other ways the pa¤ is conceptualized by Bhop¡s and devotees; where it derives its central position from in terms of their understanding; and, how it fits into the extensive and complex reservoir of meaning acquired and sustained from the main narrative and other stories the Bhop¡s tell. In addition to this, I also examine its organizational features, and the symbolic and religious significance of certain relevant images and scenes.

The Signs of Persistence

To begin with the literal meaning of the word pa¤ is simply "cloth".⁴ As a religious object it is understood to be a "calato devaro or "calato mandir" i.e. a "moveable" or "moving" shrine or temple.⁵ This is in contrast to the "fixed" or "immovable" shrine or temple of Devn¡r¡ya¸ in which the deity together with attendants K¡l¡ and Gor¡ Bh®ru, and his brothers⁶ or ancestors⁷ are worshipped in the form of aniconic bricks (¢¶h) ⁸

The present section I focus on three stories. The first deals with the origins of the two principal objects of worship, namely bricks (¢¶h) and the scroll (pa¤). The second deals with the origin of the two lineages of priests in the cult of Devn¡r¡ya¸. The third story, which deals with the erection of an important temple, is a variation on the theme of cloth occurring in the first story. Here it is not cloth that is worshipped directly, but cloth that is instrumental in building a place where the objects of worship (namely bricks) can be installed. It also brings out the role of the weaver community of the Bh¡bh¢s in the cult. Taken together these three stories widen our understanding of the context in which the sacred object of the scroll is embedded. Furthermore, in these examples we also see that items of religious significance for the cult derive a large share of meaning from the main narrative or stories related to it. Thus the narrative and the cult build a self-referential whole: while the cult promotes the emergence and re-emergence of the narrative through ritual performance, the narrative explains and legitimizes the emergence and establishment of the cult. Similarly meaning emerges as a kind of epiphenomenon out of the plethora of individual details, formal characteristics, organizational rules, and minute segments of verbal and visual expression in fluctuating contexts. To draw an analogy from an hypothesis on the nature of consciousness itself:

...the explanations of "emergent" phenomena in our brains - for instance, ideas, hopes, images, analogies, and finally consciousness and free will - are based on a kind of Strange Loop, an interaction between levels in which the top level reaches back down towards the bottom level and influences it, while at the same being itself determined by the bottom level. In other words, a self-reinforcing "resonance" between different levels... The self comes into being at the moment it has the power to reflect itself. ⁹

Bricks and Cloth

The following account deals with the creation of bricks, the scroll, and the "science of singing". The short episode belongs to the last sections of the narrative when Devn¡r¡ya¸ is about to depart to Baiku¸¶h after having completed his "mission".

"Now about the science of singing (g¡¸o bidy¡).¹⁰ It's like this. The day Bhagav¡n went to Indr¡san - [when] he returned after 11 years [had passed]¹¹ - after that, on that day Devn¡r¡ya¸'s wife [R¡¸¢ P¢palde], she said: "Mah¡r¡j, you've departed to Indr¡san. What about me? What's going to happen to me?" So, Devn¡r¡ya¸ said: "R¡¸¢ S¡hab, now in my temples - the worship p£j¡ will be for you, the name will be mine." So, in all the big temples there are, R¡¸¢ P¢palde is worshipped in [the form of] bricks (¢¶h). ¹² Now when we go into a temple we say, "Oh, ¢¶h¡ k¡ ¿y¡m."¹³ So, we make Devn¡r¡ya¸ áy¡m, and, for P¢palde R¡¸¢ there is the worship of bricks. We say: "Let's go to Dem¡l¢'s devar¡.¹⁴ After going inside the temple, the worship is done to bricks. So, the worship (P£j¡) is P¢palde's, and the name is Dev's.

So, Bhagav¡n gave that promise to P¢palde: "Go, the worship (p£j¡) is [for] you. The world will worship you." [But P¢palde said:] "Well, Mah¡r¡j, I'm alone. I don't feel good like this." [So,] he created B¢l¡ and B¢l¢, two children [for her].¹⁵ Even then, P¢palde said: "I won't let you go now!" So, when Devn¡r¡ya¸ departed he wore a b¡g¡.¹⁶ So, R¡¸¢ P¢palde caught hold of the b¡g¡ - of the cloth: "I won't let you go!". Darb¡r¹⁷ gave a jerk. So, Bhagav¡n sat down in the celestial chariot (biy¡n). And, from that b¡g¡ a long piece of cloth was made. On that [piece of cloth], by Bhagav¡n's command - Bhagav¡n thought: "I'm going to Indr¡san - what sign will the world have?" -on its own - because of Devn¡r¡ya¸ - on that cloth "m£rt¢s" appeared - a map (nakÀo) was created. So, on that day [on] the cloth of that "b¡g¡" the pa¤ originated. And, these Pa¸·its called Jo¿¢ in Bhilwara, the design fell into their hands. At no other place is there Dev's map (nakÀo). [people] can of course make false images, but the real thing is over there. The real thing is not available anywhere else but in Bhilwara. Some say Br¡hman or Pa¸·it - only they do the writing of the pa¤.¹⁸ Only they have the old plan (nakÀo) of the pa¤. And, from that day onwards there has been a pa¤ - and it came to belong to Bhop¡s. And, the Bh¡¶'s¹⁹ ba¢²⁰ - by looking at it - everyone by looking at the Bh¡¶'s - N¡rad Bh¡¶'s²¹ "ba¢s" began the song. From then on the song originated, and the recitation of Bhagav¡n's story began. There you are sir!"

Although the row of bricks in shrines and temples are usually considered to be a manifestation of Devn¡r¡ya¸, the narrative above also connects them specifically to Devn¡r¡ya¸'s wife, R¡¸¢ P¢palde. Similarly, the creation of the pa¤ is also indirectly caused by R¡¸¢ P¢palde who holds onto Devn¡r¡ya¸'s knee-long coat. In addition to this, two other important constituents of worship in shrines are related to Devn¡r¡ya¸'s first two wives (R¡¸¢ P¢palde being the third): seat/throne or p¡¶ to his wife C¡v¶¢, the daughter of a Dait (Skt.: daitya); and, flame/light or jot to his wife N¡gkany¡, the daughter of a N¡ga king.²² Furthermore, in this account we find that two potent signs of continuity are being given shape: the one hard and indelible (brick), the other soft and fragile (cloth).²³ The story also expresses a notion of continuity in a very literal sense: the cloth of Devn¡r¡ya¸'s coat is extended to accomodate the size and dimensions of a pa¤. Each individual pa¤ is thus at least figuratively, if not literally, speaking for devotees, an extension of that first length of cloth. Thus similar to the case of the verbal narrative being transmitted from generation to generation after Choch£ Bh¡¶'s recording of the events he has witnessed, the visual narrative in the appearance of the pa¤ too is an "unbroken" roll of sacred image and cloth.²⁴ It is "complete" in its form by being connected to Devn¡r¡ya¸'s apparel. Moreover, the appearance of m£rtis on the scroll also substantiates the idea that it is a concrete manifestation of divine presence. Thus the pa¤ is, in terms of the above story, an enduring replica of the past in the present. Not only this, it is also, like components of a Bhop¡'s costume, a recreation of Devn¡r¡ya¸'s regal body constituted through items of his dress.

The creation of the pa¤ and individual elements of a Bhop¡s costume, as well as forms of worship in shrines, is not limited to Devn¡r¡ya¸'s immediate self, but to the social extensions of it in the form of marriage bonds, and kin-relationships. Thus for example the costume worn by Bhop¡s is composed of signs or emblems of the god and his wives: the coat (b¡g¡) and turban (s¡ph¡) represents the god himself; the wrap of thin cloth worn around the coat represents P¢palde; the ornament attached to the front of the turban, Devn¡r¡ya¸'s first wife, N¡gkany¡; the peacock feather pointer used for refering to the pa¤, his second wife C¡v¶¢. This feature of the god's signs is also repeated in the items occurring in shrines mentioned above. Thus the name (of temples) is the god's, while the bricks, seat, and flame are signs of his wives. Moreover, the double-gourd stringed instrument (b¢¸/jantar) played by Bhop¡s is considered identical to the one played by Choch£ Bh¡¶. Finally, as the story recounted below shows, Bhop¡s themselves are in the direct descendancy of Devn¡r¡ya¸'s son, B¢l¡. Thus almost each and every important facet of the worship is defined in terms of the god or through an extension of his own self in the person of his wives, children, or genealogist. By identifying these different features with the god, or his wives, children, and genealogist, his devotees not only keep their memory alive, they also participate in the recreation and reconstruction of the god's "extended" self expressed through these different relationships.

Bhop¡s: Ochre-Clad and Scroll-Bearing

The following account relates the origin of two kinds of priests in the cult of Devn¡r¡ya¸ the ochre-clad temple priests, and the scroll-bearing itinerant singer-priests.²⁵ The story of the creation of institutions of the ochre-clad (bhekdh¡r¢) and the scroll-bearing (pa¤dh¡r¢) Bhop¡s like the story of the pa¤ above is consigned to an episode occurring at the tail-end of the narrative. The story which is told by ár¢ Hukam¡r¡m Bhop¡, a scroll-bearing Bhop¡ himself, also opens a window onto the perceptions and evaluations of scroll-bearing Bhop¡s of their ochre-clad, celibate counterparts who control not only the administration of shrines and temples, but ultimately also the activities of pa¤dh¡r¢ Bhop¡s. The context for the story is provided by a "competition" between a famous physician, Baidn¡th B¡b¡, and Devn¡r¡ya¸. After curing hundreds of individuals who have been affected by leprosy, Devn¡r¡ya¸ challenges the physician to do the same or at least to cure his son, B¢l¡ of the disease. The story thus also highlights Devn¡r¡ya¸'s sovereignity over matters relating to physical healing.

"Look, there are two kinds of Bhop¡s of Devn¡r¡ya¸ Understood! What happened? Now, the day Bhagav¡n cured B¢l¡ of leprosy - healed his body-in Dem¡l¢- it happened then. So, Baidn¡th B¡b¡ - Dev and Baidn¡th reflected- Devmah¡r¡j said: "Thousands of lepers. Their leprosy was cured in one moment." Baidn¡th B¡b¡ said: "In one moment. I can't do that. I'm a physician. I give visible [things] like herbs etc. If it's someone's karam - good [karam] - then he'll be cured in one month. It could take two months. it could also take six months." Devmah¡r¡j said: "Cure it immediately." Baidn¡th B¡b¡ said: "There's no medicine in my science (baid) to cure it immediately!" Then Devmah¡r¡j cast his "nectar gaze" (amm¢ k¢ nazar). Thousands of lepers,, their bodies were turned pure. Baidn¡th B¡b¡ said: "Mah¡r¡j, I don't have this [kind] of knowledge." Devmah¡r¡j brought his own son. "I've cured thousands. You cure one!" [Baidn¡th B¡b¡] said: "Devmah¡r¡j, I admit defeat! I can't cure leprosy in one moment. I fold my hands in front of you. Here's my pouch, my flag, my conch, and my science. I hand it over to you." The Bhop¡s of that "panth" they live in big temples - in PuÀkar R¡j - even today. They have ochre clothes. With these clothes, they keep to the form (r£p) of Baidn¡th B¡b¡.

Now, [for] the pa¤dh¡r¢ Bhop¡s who tell the tale of Devj¢ in different villages, who set up the pa¤. So, afterwards Bhagav¡n came on his own to Dem¡l¢, and healed B¢l¡'s body. At that time he said: "B¢l¡, you become Bhagav¡n's - become my Bhop¡, and perform service (sev¡)," So Bhagav¡n healed B¢l¡'s body. He started the service and worship. And Bhagav¡n told B¢l¡: "You become a Bhop¡." [Was B¢l¡ the first Bhop¡?] "No! Before B¢l¡ there was neither temple nor Bhop¡. The day Bhagav¡n made a temple (devaro) on his own in Dem¡l¢, the time he cured B¢l¡'s body - that time. Understood?" [Yes] "That devaro is still existent. It's there today. So, the time he cured B¢l¡'s body, there was no mandir, masjid, and Bhagav¡n created the devaro of Dem¡l¢ by himself. After that all these big temples - having seen it [Dem¡l¢] - sprouted up everywhere. So, look, from B¢l¡ the title of Bhop¡ originated. From Dem¡l¢ the devaro came into existence. B¢l¡ - he performed service didn't he - then all the following Bhop¡s also did service for Bhagav¡n and sang songs for him (bhajan kart¡), and told the story."

In the above account we see that the scroll-bearing Bhop¡s, to which the narrator himself belongs, are the followers of a tradition of worship founded by Devn¡r¡ya¸'s son, B¢l¡. The circumstances of the narrative thus bring scroll-bearing Bhop¡s much closer in kinship terms to Devn¡r¡ya¸ than the bhekdh¡r¢ Bhop¡s, who - at least in ár¢ Hukam¡r¡m's account - are somewhat removed from the central characters of the story. The bhekdh¡r¢ Bhop¡s are followers of Baidn¡th B¡b¡, the physician who submits to the superior healing abilities of Devn¡r¡ya¸.²⁶ Baidn¡th B¡b¡ and Devn¡r¡ya¸ are thus involved in a clash of powers whose outcome is decided on when the physician has been utterly "defeated" by Devn¡r¡ya¸ who heals thousands of lepers in an instant. After his recognition of the god's miraculous powers, Baidn¡th B¡b¡ hands over the symbols of his profession to Devn¡r¡ya¸ in acknowledgement of his lesser, human abilities.²⁷

A Temple from Cloth

In this third and last account provided below, it is a member of the Bh¡bh¢ community who becomes the first priest of an important temple of Devn¡r¡ya¸. Revealingly, the construction of the temple is financed through the sale of cloth. The story thus underscores a further connection Devn¡r¡ya¸ has to cloth, and to the community of weavers. It provides a variation on the themes highlighted in the first narrative related above regarding the significance of bricks and the scroll.

"I've heard that the Bh¡bh¢ j¡t first began serving Devj¢." "They still do that - but that's not counted in the parv¡¤o." "No, no not in the parv¡¤o...but". "Well, let me tell you how it was. Like, Bhagav¡n, here was a Bh¡bh¢ called L¡lo - he used to weave bejo" "What was that?" "Like, you know "cloth", this was called "bejo" in earlier times. [He] wove cloth, when Devn¡r¡ya¸ called out. [He] said: "L¡l¡, you weave cloth, now all my m£rtis - you should worship and serve them, brother". Now, he [L¡lo] said: "What's that sound?" "Where did this happen?" "This is about D¡t¡, the devaro of D¡t¡. I told you about this place yesterday didn't I" "Yes, in fact this morning [you] were talking about It" "It's about that place, didn't Bhop¡j¢ say so? So, the next day the voice spoke again. [L¡lo] said: "Who is it Mah¡r¡j?" "I'm Dev, who took incarnation after Sav¡¢ Bhoj. [I want you to] serve in my shrines." [L¡lo] said: "I'll do it Mah¡r¡j. I'll be of some use to you." He started serving [Devmah¡r¡j]. Everyday he'd produce a yard or a yard-and-a-half of cloth, sell it, feed his children, and make do in this way. Again the voice said: "L¡l¡, build a temple for me! A superb one!" [L¡lo] said: "Mah¡r¡j, what should I make the devaro from? I work just enough to rear my children, that's all the labor I do. So, I don't oven save this much. And...(?)." "What do you do?" "I make a piece of cloth, one-and-a-quarter hands, and sell it to the Mah¡jan; I produce one-and-a-quarter hands a day. The devaro will be built with those one-and-a-quarter hands. " "It'll get it done with that. Keep it under your arm - don't let go of it. Tell him to measure it!" [L¡lo] said: "Alright, then I'll go tomorrow!"

He took the cloth, put it under his arm, and told the Mah¡jan: "Measure it, sir." [The Mah¡jan] said: "Brother, you bring it all measured everyday. I have trust [in you]. Put it in the shop, and take your money!" [L¡lo] said: "No, Mah¡r¡j. I won't place it [in the shop] like that. I don't have Bhagav¡n's permission today! Today I'll have it measured, and give it to you." [The Mah¡jan] said: "OK, L¡l¡, come over here we'll measure it out!" The Seth started measuring it. [He] went on measuring it and measuring it and measuring it - it didn't fit into the house [shop]. Now, when it didn't fit into the shop, the Mah¡jan said: "L¡l¡, I can't take anymore. I'm satisfied. Take away [the rest]." He took a pair of scissors and cut it. Those one-and-a-quarter hand - that's all that remained in the end - the one-and-a-quarter hand that the Bh¡bh¢ had measured at home, that's what remained under his arm. And, through miraculous powers it was increased such a lot. Money was obtained from that. From that money L¡lo made a devaro for Dev. Worship and service began.

In the meantime, the B¡dsh¡h launched an assault - Aurangd¢b (sic) - from Delhi. He came from Delhi. On the road from Delhi, D¡toj¢ came on the way. [Where is D¡toj¢? - It's beyond Jaypur]. So, he arrived there and reflected: "It's very late, so let's go and have a meal." They had a meal - ate well - ate different good things. The leading Sird¡r said: "It's a nice devaro. It has a parcyo too! But, there's one thing missing." "What?" "Well, like the priest (puj¡ro), he's a Bh¡bh¢. It's a low (halk¢) j¡t. So, we'll have to accept the cir¸¡m¤t from his hands." The B¡dsh¡h thought about this. He said, "Sister-, then he's fouled us ("It's like when a Bh¡bh¢ would give us to drink - we say we won't drink your water!") - get the puj¡r¢ out of the temple - get him out!" He got in a rage and went back in. [They] told L¡l¡: "L¡l¡ your time's up, the B¡dsh¡h's coming." [He] said: "Where should I go now?" He told Dev: "Mah¡r¡j, I made the temple and did the service. That B¡dsh¡h's going to skin me alive!" He started trembling. Devn¡r¡ya¸ said: "Don't tremble! Don't be afraid! L¡l¡ don't run away, don't you run away, don't run. There's a N¢m [tree] in front of the temple." So, when the B¡dsh¡h came, L¡lo grasped hold of the N¢m. When he caught hold [of it], the body of the Bh¡bh¢ stayed there - on the branch (trunk?). [He] got out of that body, [was born again] he went and sat down in the temple. Devmah¡r¡j removed the body. Then the B¡dsh¡h accepted the parcyo at that place. He said:

dhin d¡t¡, dhin devar¡

dhin puj¡r¢ l¡l

are p¡rb¤hm nai s¢vat¡

L¡l¡ Bh¡bh¢ k¢ Udoj¢ kholiyo

palt¢ kh¡l.²⁸

He made the Cam¡r's body "uttam". No, no he didn't change his j¡t, he stayed a Bh¡bh¢, but he made an uttam j¡t with that body (kholiyo). That's the parcyo given to the Bh¡bh¢. ["So, when did this happen?" - This happened after Devn¡r¡ya¸ went to Indr¡san. It's not the first devaro. Dem¡l¢ is the [first one]. The first devar¡ began from Dem¡l¢. There wasn't a mas¢d in Dev's name, nor was there a devar¡, nor dh£p, nor dhy¡n, nothing at all."]

In the above story we find a recurrence of the motif of cloth being "extended" as it is done in the case of Devn¡r¡ya¸'s coat when it is held onto by his wife as he is about to depart to Baiku¸¶h. While in temporal terms the incident related above occurs after the god has left the earth, it nevertheless expresses the value of cloth as an item not only for the representation of sacred images, but also for the construction of a place of worship. As pointed out above it also stresses the role of the weaver community in the cult of Devn¡r¡ya¸. Importantly it also deals with the transformation of the weaver's "impure" body into a "pure" one. Although the weaver's life is saved in this way, the motif also suggests an ambivalent attitude towards the community of Bh¡bh¢s. This attitude is also revealed, for example, in the story of Devn¡r¡ya¸'s grandfather, B¡gh SiÆh, who, while marrying twelve women from different castes does not marry a woman belonging to the Bh¡bh¢ caste. She is married to his Brahman care-taker.²⁹

In Chapter Two, and at the beginning of this chapter it was pointed out that the pa¤ rather than the narrative is considered crucial to a performance because the images on it were not simply pictures, or icons, or even spiritual likeness but the presence of the god and various other persons and objects. In the above section it has also become clear that the pa¤ is sign It shares this status of a sign together with a range of other objects relevant to the cult. But what kind of a sign is the pa¤ (and the other items mentioned above)? Obviously, it is not a sign in the commonsense understanding of a symbol that stands for something else.³⁰ The pa¤ is a sign that generates persistence and continuity, while at the same time evoking presence. In terms of the narrative retold above, and its actual employment in performances, the pa¤ is therefore a sign³¹ that ties together the past and the present in a particular unfolding of radiance and splendour. Together with the other objects spoken of above, the pa¤ creates a matrix of signs that replicates the "core" of the cult defined by Devn¡r¡ya¸, his wives and son, and genealogist. By invoking these signs, devotees recreate the presence of the past in each performance, and in each service conducted in a temple. And, by commemorating the presence of the past, they also celebrate the presence of Devn¡r¡ya¸ in the present.

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