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The Rajasthani oral narrative of Devn¡r¡ya¸

 Visual Narrative...

Nothing, I suppose, seems more intuitively obvious than the claim that literature is an art of time, painting an art of space.³²

In the following section I examine the organizational features of the pa¤ before moving on to an appreciation of the religious and symbolic content of sets of select images. The analysis of organizational features is begun by reviewing the work of scholars on pa¤-painting traditions. The perspective of the scholars presented here focuses primarily on an understanding of the pa¤ as a specific arrangement of space.³³ While the analysis offered by the scholars under consideration admirably bring out the abstract principles of spatial organization (such as scenes, scale, or space), they do not deal with the ritual, symbolic, and religious meanings underlying characters, scenes, and images. Thus, for example, questions regarding the organization of space in terms of auspiciousness and inauspiciousness (life and death), or kinship, or temporality (past and present), are left in abeyance. But it would appear that it is these concerns that bind the content of the pa¤ to the larger context of the religious cult of Devn¡r¡ya¸, and to the issues that are of relevance to its devotees. Moreover, the preoccupation with space as the fundamental feature of the pa¤, as the citation above suggests, perhaps unconsciously reflects the general limitations we place on the media of painting. Thus as Mitchell (1987: 98f.) discussing the influential work of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing points out:

Just what does it mean to say that literature is a temporal art, painting a spatial art? Literary critics usually follow Lessing's lead by unpacking this expression with parallel accounts of the reception, medium, and content of literary works. Reading occurs in time; the signs which are read are uttered or inscribed in a temporal sequence; and the events represented or narrated occur in time. There is thus a kind of homology, or what Lessing calls a "convenient relation" (bequemes Verhaltnis) between medium, message, and the mental process of decoding. A similar homology operates in accounts of visual art; these forms represent bodies and their relationships in space; and the perception of both medium and message is instantaneous, taking no appreciable time.

Of course, the pa¤ is a special case of visual art. It is more than a painting - it is a visual narrative.³⁴ Its meaning does not unfold instantaneously, but in the time taken to tell the verbal narrative.³⁵ Thus while the message of the pa¤ reveals itself in time, the message of the verbal narrative reveals itself in space, i.e. in the space of the unrolled scroll and its images. Both verbal and visual art thus transgress their apparent "natural" boundaries by being dependant on each other for their full expression. In fact both narratives, like other aspects of the cult form a seamless whole that again is deeply informed by the language of presence. Strictly speaking, we ought to refer - perhaps a little inelegantly - to an "oral-visual" narrative art. In the case of Devn¡r¡ya¸ this involves the fragmented utterances of the verbal narrative proceeding dialogically between the singers interlocked with the non-linear sequence of pictorial images. The description of the scroll and story as parts of a composite oral-visual art leads naturally to the conclusion that both have a spatial and a temporal dimension. To concur with the statement of Mitchell (ibid., p. 103) who offers a critique of Lessing's divide between space and time:

Our beginning premise would be that works of art, like all other objects of human experience, are structured in space-time, and that the interesting problem is to comprehend a particular spatial-temporal construction, not to label it as temporal or spatial. A poem is not literally temporal and figuratively spatial: it is literally a spatial-temporal construction. The terms "space" and "time" only become figurative or improper when they are abstracted from one another as independant, antithetical essences that define the nature of an object. The use of these terms is, strictly speaking, a concealed synecdoche, a reduction of the whole to a part.

Thus while the visual image is framed by the space of the pa¤, its meaning unfolds within the temporal parameters of the verbal narrative. Similarly, the verbal narrative which is framed by the time taken to recount its contents, gains complete expression within the spatial dimensions of the pa¤. As pointed out above, by mutually participating in both realms of space and time, the visual image and verbal narrative produce a composite spatial-temporal, oral-visual object that oversteps the borders of each individual component. But how is this composite object to be described? How is an object that is neither wholly composed of words nor of pictures to be portrayed in terms of only one medium, namely that of language (and its temporal dimension) alone? What are the limits of representation posed here?

One obvious limitation that arises in writing about an "oral-visual" composition, is, of course that not only the aural, but also the visual dimension is lost. We cannot switch here from one medium to the other. The written description can only operate within the framework of linguistic pointers such as analogies, metaphors, and models to reveal what an oral-visual composition looks like.³⁶ In the following I will nevertheless attempt to briefly outline what the representation of an oral-visual composition might entail.

The spatial-temporal framework of the composition is not static, but dynamic. In other words the interplay between the spatial and the temporal in any given performance has to be seen as a simultaneous interchange between space and time, or between visual image and verbal narrative. We cannot thus talk of a linear beginning with its inception in the verbal narrative (i.e., in time) which then shifts to the visual image (i.e. to space), and then back again. Verbal narrative and visual image are held in constant balance.

The time taken to sing and declaim a given episode, say the birth of Devn¡r¡ya¸ and the circumstances immediately following it, would, for example, require roughly thirty to forty minutes³⁷ In contrast to the time taken to relate these events in narrative form, the corresponding images on the pa¤ number perhaps five or' six, taking up relatively little space. Each individual image is therefore accompanied by a proliferation of details in the verbal narrative. Thus the images are highly concentrated units of communication, that, like the g¡v sections of the verbal narrative, need to be "explained" or, as 3 have previously mentioned, "read". To emerge at the end of the story while simultaneously revealing the meaning of the images, we need to "jump" back and forth between the visual image and the verbal narrative. An analogy may be drawn here by referring to the concept of recursion. In its simplest sense, the oral-visual narrative is recursive because its components refer to one another in a very essential manner. In other words the visual image is entailed in the verbal narrative, and vice versa. But the idea of recursion can also suggest different levels or kinds of "nesting" or "stacking" of information.³⁸ Supposing we were to take this notion and apply it to the pa¤ and the verbal narrative, what kind of description of an oral-visual narrative would we arrive at? For instance, if, for the sake of convenience, we took a particular visual image as the starting point of any given series. The visual image would precipitate a specific insertion or "stack" of verbal narrative information which itself causes a new visual image to be introduced at the end, and so on. Thus for any given episode we would have to show a sequence composed of compressed units of space which trigger off longer units of time that themselves again lead to compressed units of space. Any satisfactory representation of the oral-visual composition would therefore have to simultaneously combine these twofold dimensions.

Thus the pa¤, in terms of its actualization during a performance, is located both in space and time. Similarly, its contents are also situated in space and time, being concerned with a narrative and its locations. But as I shall show below, the pa¤ is not only embedded in space and time, it also thematizes or creates a discourse about different kinds of spaces and times. This discourse transcends its formal organizational elements. Thus larger concerns such as historical time and present time, ancestry and kinship, and the bonds of social cohesion or political conflict are all built into the spatial-temporal organization of the pa¤.

"Picture story-telling" in the past

According to Mair (1988) the tradition of "picture story-telling",³⁹ and the related forms of "shadow" theatre probably goes back more than two thousand years. The most crucial reference is to be found in P¡t¡µjali's grammatical treatise, the Mah¡bh¡Àya. Composed between 160-140 BCE it refers to ¿aubhikas (illusionists) and granthikas (reciters) who perform that which has happened in the past in the present in front of audiences. For Luders "¿aubhikas" refered to picture showmen or shadow players. Also its cognates in Pali (sobhiya) and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit suggest a similar profession: "magician, trickster, clown, shadow-playman, juggler, actor." ¿aubhika and its cognates derive from the root ¿ubh: "to appear; flash; flit; shine; look like; adorn." A further cognate "sobhanagarakam" is found in the Pali text Brahms-j¡la-sutta. The text classifies sobhanagarakam (picture story-telling) along with other performances such as instrumental music, ballad recitations, acrobatics, bardic chants, nautch dances, etc. Otto Franke links sobhanagarakam to pa¶ibh¡nacittam by way of a P¡li commentary, pointing out the latter term's relationship to "pictures cloth to be used in connection with recitation" (Mair 1988: 21). Mair cites a number of passages to show that their is textual evidence for this tradition up to the 14th CE.

Contemporary Traditions

In the contemporary period the specific use of a cloth scroll in the performances of Devn¡r¡ya¸ is matched by many other traditions in South Asia.⁴⁰ Most notable of these is the narrative scroll tradition of the epic of P¡b£j¢, which both in terms of the scroll, as well as actual performances, corresponds closely with those of Devn¡r¡ya¸.⁴¹ According to Smith (1991) the pa¤ in the epic tradition of P¡b£j¢ functions as a kind of "epic map" or representation of an "epic geography". Thus individual scenes on the pa¤ are not arranged according to the linear sequence of the narrative, but in terms of their relative spatial positioning. P¡b£j¢'s court, for example, is in the center of the pa¤, whereas two other regions called La´k¡ and Umarko¶ appear to the left to the court. The towns of PuÀkar and S¡mbhar, on the other hand, appear to right of Ko½£, P¡b£j¢'s capital city where his court is located. Such a positioning of towns and regions is determined by their real geographical location either to the west or to the east of Ko½£. Furthermore Smith discusses the important question of what constitutes a "scene" on the pa¤. The conclusion is not a clear cut answer since a number of "scenes" may represent a simple episode and vice versa a "single scene" may consist of a number of individual elements that are temporaly distinct from each other. In addition to this, "space" may be considered "expandable" in the sense that certain scenes are "enlarged" and others are "deflated". Not only scenes but characters also are represented on either a large or a small scale. Finally Smith notes that particular scenes can be ambigious in their meaning because of the multiple usage to illustrate different narrative elements. These observations can be summarized in terms of five principals which determine the visual structure of the pa¤:

1) The pa¤ is highly directional: the orientation of the characters within one scene very likely depends on the relative position of other scenes.

2) Scenes depicted on the pa¤ may well be ambigious: the same scene, or the same item within a scene, may stand for different narrative elements at different points in time.

3) Conversely, there may be multiple occurrence of items within a scene.

4) The disposition of scenes and figures aim to fill all available space.

5) Space, like scale, is elastic, and can shrink or stretch as desired.⁴²

Painting and Painters

Genealogy of artists, Patrons

Methods, Colors Used, Instruments

Artistic Style, Context of Rajasthani Art, Rajasthani Wall Paintings

Pictures of Artist Painting Par

Besides the important study of Smith, Miller (1994) and Singh (1995) have each attempted to analyze the pictorial structure of the pa¤. Whereas Smith arrives at the conclusions outlined above regarding the notion of "space" on the pa¤ of P¡b£j¢, Miller and Singh outline the organizational features of Devn¡r¡ya¸'s pa¤. According to Joseph Miller there are six levels of organization:

level 1: Programme

The program is the highest level of integration. The par program determines which location, scenes, iconography, characters, etc. are represented. A skilled par painter is capable of producing a program for the story of Pabuji, Devnarayan, Ramdevji and other popular deities in the region. For each of these pars the locations, scenes and some portions of the iconography are different. Character representation, features and elements remain similar. Indeed to the uninitiated eye, the similarities are enough to create some confusion about a par's identity. If there is some doubt, one way to immediately distinguish the Devnarayan par form the Pabuji par is to look for the black cobra (King Basak) directly facing the central picture of Devnarayan.

level 2: Location

Level 2 focuses on the identification and arrangement of place locations. With only a few exception all the scenes depicted on the par happen in namable places. The only exceptions are depictions of two mythic creatures which have no bearing on the story and are a pictorial reference to a parable.

Named place locations belong to and reinforce the two organizational interpretations or patterns represented on the par. One interpretation is cosmological, the other I will call mytho-geographical. The cosmological interpretation is separate from the narrative function of the par program. It focuses on the iconographic significance of the par for worship. It encompasses the series of deities along the top, Lord Krsna stealing butter along the bottom, the enlarged central court of Devnarayan the large picture of Black and White Bheru plus Devnarayan's stallion Lilaghar, and the multi-armed form of the Goddess. During worship with the ritual arati-lamp a singer or any other devotee will tend to direct his attention to these places first. Singers resort to pointing to the cosmological areas on the par when opening invocations are chanted for the deities and when praise songs (vardavani) are sung for Black and White Bheru, the stallion Lilaghar, and the Goddess.

The mytho-geographical locations are the places where the story occurs. Courts and palaces which belong to or represent specific towns and villages are foci of narrative activities. Most pars of Devnarayan show four courts, six court/palace locations and one palace. Here is where most of dialog between characters happens and where most destinations and points of departure occur during the narrative. Surrounding them and between them are many other places such as, water tanks, rivers, battle sites, fortresses, a market, etc. Included among these places are Heaven (svarg) and the Underworld (patal lok). Heaven and the Underworld are supra mundane. However, from the perspective of the narrative they are treated like any ordinary places where characters meet and action happens.

The core feature of the court locations is their two dimensional architectural frame work consisting of floor, pillars and roof. Seated inside the court (Kacheri or darbar) is one character facing one or more other characters. To this court may be added a palace structure (mahal) which represents the women's quarters. A palace is generally attached above the court. Stables for animals may be attached below the court. The more central the court is to the story, the more complex it becomes by the addition of charters coming or going. In the case of Ravji's town Ran, the court is just one of several localities which make up the entire picture of Ran. The other localities include Uradi market, the fortress Ratakot, Nolakho Garden, and the liquor seller's shop. When combined all these localities constitute "greater" Ran.

Because courts are used repeatedly to refer to narrative action and dialogue during the course of the epic, they have a generic and static quality. Characters look ambiguously similar and their gestures rarely portray specific action. This ambiguity enables the singer to attribute the courtiers depicted sitting in a court to whatever character fits the narrated situation.

The majority of places located between the courts represent particular scenes. They are not as open to interpretation as are the courts. They are less prone to be substituted for another scene at another time during the performance. These scenes include meetings, processions, traveling, worshipping conflicts.

The placement of the courts and their connected scenes creates an epic map which relies first and foremost a kind of spatial logic. The temporal sequence of narrated events does not organize the layout. Smith put it this way whendescribing the Pabuji par:

"This primacy of place over time is the most fundamental principle underlying the disposition of scenes on the par. All other considerations that might have an effect on the layout are subordinate to this one: most, indeed, are logically derivable from it. The par depicts the places in which the narrative occurs: it is a representation of epic geography, a sort of epic map. In and between the places shown on it, the events of the epic can be seen happening."

What is the spatial logic for putting the courts where they occur? An approximation of a real geographic map is out of the question. To make that work, Ajmer and Ran would have to occupy the same end of the par and Malwa which is depicted along side of Ajmer would have to go to the opposite end.

The crux of the organization is the placement of the courts around the large central figure of Devnarayan. Devnarayan is the cosmological center of the painting. The center is the commanding space. Before par painters sketch the figures on the par they first fold the long cloth in half and make a yellow mark for the center line. That vertical center line bisects the large figure of Devnarayan.

The courts which immediately surround Devnarayan are 1) his own court, 2) the twenty-four Brother's court, 3) the court of the Brother's father Bagh Ravat, 4) Nevo's palace, and 5) the court of the Bhils of Bhilwar. With the exception of the Bhils very small court situated beneath Devnarayan's court all these courts belong to the heroes' side, the Bagaravats. The twenty-four Brother's courts is essentially the same place as Devnarayan's court, i.e., Khera Cosalo or Daravat, occupied a generation prior to Devnarayan. It is shown either connected to or next to Devnarayan's court. Its position is to Devnarayan's right. This would be preferred because the right side is considered ritually superior and cleaner than the left. Indeed the end of the par to Devnarayan's left is dominated by Ravji, the arch rival of the twenty-four Brothers and Devnarayan.

The scale of Devnarayan's court is much larger than the twenty-four Brother's court and all the other courts. It occupies almost the entire third quadrant of the par. I think this is so because Devnarayan's court is the center of the painting's focus and is part of both the cosmological and the mytho-geographic interpretations of the par. This court that enables the par to function as a story telling property and as a religious object. It helps communicate ritual, myth and history to devotees.

During the time of the epic the court and the hamlets represented were not sacred, at least not for the reason and devotees of Devnarayan now view their sacredness. However, now in the context of performance the cosmological and mytho-geographical interpretations have become more or less bound together.

From the perspective of a modern day singer or devotee, Devnarayan's court is not the only pictorial scene which functions in both realms. Mundane places like Puskar, Malaseri and even the Khari River can and do share in the sacred, cosmological space. But they do so because they are part of the purported deeds, miracles, or contacts with the twenty-four Brothers and Lord Devnarayan. This association makes them sacred to devotees now. Indeed as pilgrims, they will visit many of these places.

level 3: Scenes and Iconography

Level 3 accounts for the placement of pictorial scenes and iconographical scenes. The locations described above consist of one or more related scenes. The Bhil's court, for example, contains just one scene, the only scene that represents Bhilwar. It consist of one man faced by two men and a horse tied below. These three figures are framed within an architectural structure we identify as a court. Epic singers turn their attention to it only when Bhuno attacks the Bhils to recapture his father's horse, Nolakha. Ravji's court, on the other hand, is complex. It is the center for two generations of interactions. Scenes are spatially arranged to follow the logic of representation. For instance, comings and goings are situated at the boundary of the architectural frame work. Activities associated with the womenfolk occur in and beside the palace.

Boundaries of pictorial scenes are achieved through a number of compositional techniques. These include using architectural enclosures such as courts, palaces, temples and rooms; natural settings such a gardens, lakes, and trees; figures of men or women in face to face interaction; and figures of horsemen and other warriors with weapons in hand facing each other. Also lone characters such as a camel messenger, objects such as a conch shell, and common iconography represented along the top border of the par can represent scenes. Scenes located side by side may or may not be temporally related.

These general rules of composition enable us to determine the boundaries of most pictorial scenes. Since these scenes offer the closest correspondences to the narrated events, it follows that a thorough understanding of the epic narration will help differentiate correctly one scene from another. However, deciphering the correspondences is not always a simple process of matching narrative action with a picture. This problem relates not only to the fundamental differences between the temporal order of narrative and the spatial order of pictures, but also relates to special techniques that the painters employ. These techniques enrich the connectivity of their pictorial scenes with the oral narrative through ambiguity and repetitions which enable singers to attribute two or more narrative events to many of the scenes on the par.

level 4: Characters, Objects and Backgrounds

The fourth level of integration is that of characters, objects and backgrounds which compose a pictorial scene. A par of Devnarayan contains over 300 character representations. The majority of them are adult male figures and adult female figures. Only one character, Devnarayan is depicted as a baby. There are no female children depicted. Supernatural characters include pan-Hindu gods, goddesses and demons, plus regional deities like Black and White Bheru, Ramdevji, Sokhyo Pir and Khodya Dent. Most of these are anthropomorphic. A large variety of animals occur in the par. These include cows, horses, elephants, tigresses, snakes, scorpions, vultures, kites, cranes, other birds, boar, oxen, camels, peacocks, fish turtle, crocodile, dogs, donkey goats, water buffalo, and mice.

The most profuse objects are weapons. Most male characters carry a spear and shield. Swords, bows and arrows, cannons and whips and other occurring weapons. The par also contains musical instruments, implements for work like a liquor still and pots, jewelry, board games religious objects, household objects like a butter churn, carriages for travel, etc.

Backgrounds include court, palace, fortress, temple and shop structures, plants and trees, lakes, rivers and tanks. The larger courts are the most articulated structures. Posts with shaped capitals support the two dimensional floor and ceiling elements. The floors of the major courts are represented by simple square or diamond patters. A durrie and pillow occur in the background of the central image of Devji. The domed ceilings of the central court are decorated with tassels and illustrated with lotus blossom motifs and flowers.

level 5: Features

The features of Level 5 include anatomical representations, costume details, gestures, body poses, and formal details of objects. A male costume usually consists of turban, ear ornament, shoulder sash, necklace, arm ornament, wrist ornament ring(s), waist sash, sword, knife shield, old fashion Rajput outer garment (bago), and shoes. Women's costumes include skirts, shawls and blouse fronts. For the most part these features conform to established pattern that create a visual rhythm in the par. Of course there are variables. For instance there are three ways to outline the head, six kinds of hands, four kinds of feet, etc.

The par is filled with many characters engaged in many different activities. A character's function affects what features the painter chooses to use. Size of the character affects the way those features are articulated. It is clear from studying the par that characters generally come in two sizes, large and small. The larger figures show greater detail. Examples include the central figure of Devji, the courtiers in the larger courts and the larger representations of horsemen. Small figures sitting or walking, battle groups, and processions consist of the smallest are the least articulated. They tend to be rounder. Their mustaches do not curl, their turbans show fewer folds, and their hands are fist like.

level 6: Compositional elements

Level 6, the lowest level of integration, involves compositional elements. These are the dots, lines and washes of color that give form to feature and figures. Except for color which in some cases helps define characters (e.g., Devnarayan's horse is green, so the character riding the green horse is Devji) compositional elements have no direct bearing on scene identification.

Compositional elements are the foundation for creating a par and they affect the quality of the painting stylistically. The painter applies two sets of lines to create each figure. The first is a light yellow sketch (naksa). It consists of circles and outlines that determine character size and location. Appropriate colors are applied to this rough sketch. Eight colors are used: yellow, orange, green brown, red and blue, black and white (in the absence of color). Like multi-colored printing, each color is applied to the entire painting one at a time. Figures and objects develop in stages. Each new color application further defines the figure. After all the colors are applied the black outline is drawn. This is the slowest step and the one that articulates each and every figure.

The par of a mature painter is a highly consistent pattern of colors and lines. Colors fall in place so when the black outline is laid, they will fit well within the boundaries created by the final black outline. This skill comes from early training and years of practice by the painter. From the painter's finish brush facial and body contour lines flow rapidly and precisely.

Following Smith, Miller in his discussion of level 2 (locations) points out that

... the placement of the courts and their connected scenes creates an epic map which relies first and foremost on a kind of spatial logic. The temporal sequence of narrated events does not organize the layout... What is the spatial logic for putting the courts where they occur? An approximation of a real geographic map is out of the question. The crux of the organization is the placement of the courts around the large central figure of Devn¡r¡ya¸. Devn¡r¡ya¸ is the cosmological center of the painting. The center is the commanding space...

Kavita Singh (1995: 433f.) carries the analysis further by pointing out that:

The scroll may be composed of a number of locales, but it is more than he sum of its parts. It is not a list of places but an organic space whose parts interrelate. Firstly, the positioning of the locales is governed by an approximate geography where relation between places is, psychologically, if not cartographically, acceptable... Secondly, links are maintained between the different areas by the continuity of action; a continuity which is both spatial (linking different parts of the scroll) as well as temporal (encompassing a span of time).

Since Miller and Singh have already done extensive research on the (formal) organizational features of the pa¤, I shall not repeat the analysis here. Instead, I will extend the enquiry in the direction suggested above, i.e. towards the discursive organization and meaning of the pa¤.⁴³

The Cosmology of the Par

The pa¤ not only represents scenes, locations, and characters from the narrative, it represents - on closer examination - an entire cosmology, albeit a cosmology describing not the cosmos in general, but the cosmos of the narrative framed by the topography of a specific region in Rajasthan and Malwa. This topography is contained within the extraterrestrial domains of svarg and pat¡l depicted at the top and bottom center of the pa¤. But it would be wrong to assume that the cosmology of the narrative is composed only of locales within the topography of that region. The cosmology is suffused with the signs and symbols of a natural and human environment: animals, humans, gods, trees, mountains, stones, water sources, musical instruments, workman's tools, weapons, palaces, forts, and courts.⁴⁴ Events do not simply take place and characters are not simply depicted. Each are shown in connection with markers of the natural environment, e.g., with particular kinds of trees, or with water sources such as wells, ponds, rivers, or with animals such as horses, elephants, snakes, dogs, scorpions, crows, owls, tigers. Events and characters cannot be thought of as being without these markers. The visual imagery, in unanimity with the verbal narrative, thus places itself within what may be termed a "holistic" field in which events, places, characters, and the "natural" environment are intrinsically connected. The one does not occur without the other.⁴⁵

A Map of Kinship, Time, and Religious Power

Although, Devn¡r¡ya¸ undoubtedly occupies the physical and cosmological center of the pa¤, the scenes and figures surrounding him are juxtaposed in terms (a) kinship and (b) temporality, i.e. the past (Devn¡r¡ya¸'s ancestors), and the present (Devn¡r¡ya¸'s life). The closer a character is to Devn¡r¡ya¸ in terms of kin relationships the nearer is the character's proximity to the center of the pa¤. The less a character is related to Devn¡r¡ya¸ in terms of kinship, the further away he/she may be represented on the pa¤. Similarly events and scenes closely connected to Devn¡r¡ya¸'s ancestors are depicted on the left of the pa¤, and those connected to his own adult life are shown on the right.⁴⁶ The logic of kinship and temporality (albeit not the temporality of narrative sequence) followed here, is thus one of generations spanning time past and time present. This is a different logic to that of a spatial logic or the logic of narrative continuity. The "spatial" organization of the pa¤ can thus be said to be based on social, and by extension, also temporal concerns crucial to the inner structure of the narrative. Kinship and ancestry both play a fundamental part in the narrative as themes. It is within the circumference of these themes that individual episodes are spun out which in turn provide the narrative with continuity.

The "epic map" both Smith and Miller talk of is thus not only a map of physically visible locations such as courts, palaces, lakes, rivers, etc., but of physically "invisible" and yet socially concrete relationships determined by lineage, marriage, and kinship. The organization of images on the pa¤ within these parameters also provides a significant link between visual imagery and the construction of a social and historical discourse through the narrative. By placing kin in the proximity of the hero, Devn¡r¡ya¸, and non-kin or even "enemies" on the peripheries of the scroll, the pa¤ too expresses the openings and closures articulated in the narrative. It also follows the pattern of reaching into the past, and of creating a present fundamentally connected to that past.

However, the pictorial representation of the past on one half of the pa¤ is itself differentiated.⁴⁷ This differentiation is again based on a scale determined by the immediacy of (a) past events and (b) of kinship. Thus, for example, Devn¡r¡ya¸'s birth on the Hill of M¡l¡sar¢ (L9,18) - an event in the god's "immediate" past - is located very close to the central figure. Similarly, the locations of his affinal and agnate kin are situated adjacent to Devn¡r¡ya¸ The figures of his ancestors, the Baga¤¡vats, and scenes involving them, are, following the above schema, situated further away from the center since they do not play a role in Devn¡r¡ya¸'s "immediate" past. Nevertheless, since they fulfil the criteria of kinship and temporality as the god's ancestors, they too are placed on the mid-and far-left half of the pa¤.

The right half of the pa¤ towards which Devn¡r¡ya¸ is shown facing in profile, is, reserved for the "present", i.e. the present constituted by events occurring in Devn¡r¡ya¸'s life as an adult in fulfilment of his quest. The right half of the pa¤ is also significantly set aside for the depiction of Devn¡r¡ya¸'s enemies (who are the enemies of his ancestors, the Baga¤¡vats). Major battle scenes that constitute an important part of Devn¡r¡ya¸'s earthly itinerary are depicted in the area of the pa¤ earmarked for the "present". Yet again by falling in the right half of the pa¤ which is to Devn¡r¡ya¸'s left, his enemies occupy a less auspicious space than his kin people and ancestors do to the right of Devn¡r¡ya¸. Indeed, the notion of auspicious and inauspicious halves of the pa¤ is reminiscent of Devn¡r¡ya¸'s gaze which can be either merciful or destructive. Whereas the merciful gaze⁴⁸ is granted to persons who seek Devn¡r¡ya¸'s protection and help, his destructive gaze⁴⁹ is aimed at his opponents and foes, who dare to underestimate his divine power. From the direction in which he is seated on his "python throne" it would appear as though it is his destructive gaze that is focused on his enemies collected at the far right end of the pa¤ in the R¡¸¡'s territory of R¡¸. But his gaze is, more immediately, also directed towards R¡j¡ Basak (R6,15), the serpent king of the underworld who faces him. While it is the N¡ga king's venomous breath that envelopes the lotus blossom the god holds in his hand, it is the god's "nectar gaze" that restores it to freshness and life. Thus there is an interplay of "gazes" that symbolize the poles of life and death, violence and healing, auspiciousness and inauspiciousness that the pa¤ intricately plays out.

Let us now look in more detail at the cluster of figures and places located closest to the central character of Devn¡r¡ya¸ (O,15). Immediately surrounding Devn¡r¡ya¸ to his right are a number of places associated with his birth, the events following his birth, the events associated with his marriage to P¢palde, and those connected to his "return journey" from his mother's home in Malwa. Finally, a large area of this section of the pa¤ represents three places at once: Go¶h¡, Da¤¡vat and Khe·¡ Causl¡ (L 3-R25, 1-18) (and Mekhl¡ Parvat).⁵⁰ Of the approximately 25 places located to the right of Devn¡r¡ya¸ on the pa¤, some 14 places are directly connected to the events mentioned above. The first place in this context is Devn¡r¡ya¸'s birth place on the Hill of M¡l¡sar¢. This is depicted on the upper part of the pa¤ just to the left of Devn¡r¡ya¸. Facing this is "svarg" (L4,18) which is occupied by ViÀ¸u Bhagav¡n beneath whom there is the "milk ocean" (kÀ¢r s¡gar). Subsequent to this on the lower middle of the pa¤ we have P¡¸·al (L 12,2). At P¡¸·al, Devn¡r¡ya¸ was briefly abandoned by his carriers on the way to Malwa. A lioness gave him shelter here. Then there is the region of Malwa which is Sa·£ M¡t¡'s natal home. The places depicted after Devn¡r¡ya¸'s residence in Malwa are all connected to his journey back from Malwa up to the point where he re-establishes the capital of Khe·¡ Causl¡. Ujjin¢ Dh¡r and Ga·g¡jan¡ are connected to his marriage to R¡¸¢ P¢palde, the daughter of the King of Dh¡r, and to the daughter of a Dait. Before he is able to marry R¡¸¢ P¢palde, the King of Dh¡r devises a test for him which consists in recapturing an doorway made of seven metals, which has been stolen by the demon king of Ga·g¡jan¡ (L44,14). Although Dh¡r is situated close to Khe·¡ Causl¡, Ga·g¡jan¡, perhaps because of the relatively minor role played by Devn¡r¡ya¸'s wife R¡¸¢ C¡v¶¢, is represented much further away above the court of Ajmer (L 42-55,9-13) in the far left of the pa¤. Other places connected to Devn¡r¡ya¸'s journey back from Malwa are: Soniy¡n¡ k¢ Ba¤, Devd¡, Ù¢mky¡ Tal¡v and Ma´grop. Geographically speaking each of these places is between the cities of Cittor and Bhilwara in southeastern Rajasthan. At Soniy¡n¡ k¢ Ba¤, Devn¡r¡ya¸ is supposed to have slept for six months. At Devd¡ he struck his spear into the ground causing a stream of water to gush out. At Ma´grop he brought out the milk he had drunk from Sa·£ M¡t¡ as an infant. The milk turned into a lime quarry. At Ù¢mky¡ Tal¡v he vanquished Sokh¢yo P¢r (L 27,2) who had dried up the Sipr¡ River's waters, causing the waters to flow again.

Whereas the places mentioned above are related to events beginning with Devn¡r¡ya¸'s birth and ending with the establishment of Causle Khe·¡, the other places occurring on this half of the pa¤ are associated with Devn¡r¡ya¸'s ancestors and/or their foes⁵¹ The list of Devn¡r¡ya¸'s ancestors goes back to King Bisaldev of Ajmer, who is his great-great-grandfather. King Bisaldev (L 54,12) is shown seated together with other Sird¡rs, the generals D¢y¡j¢ Jodkh¡ (L 51,12), and K¡l£ M¢r Pa¶h¡n (L 44,12) in the court of Ajmer in the extreme left of the pa¤. Devn¡r¡ya¸'s great-grandfather Hari R¡m (L52,7) is shown riding with a lion's head pierced on his spear point at the banks of PuÀkar where he encounters L¢l¡ Sevr¢, his future wife. Devn¡r¡ya¸'s grandfather, B¡gh SiÆh is shown in his garden called "B¡ghba¤" (L 39,1-5). Swings hang low from the Banyan tree in the garden. On them are the girls who later become B¡gh SiÆh's 12 wives from whom Devn¡r¡ya¸'s immediate ancestors, the 24 Baga¤¡vats are born. In addition to these locations there are courts that are related to events and people connected with the 24 Baga¤¡vats. There is the court of S¡var (L 28-35,8-12) which is ruled by D¢y¡j¢ Jodkh¡. He is shown here together with other Sird¡rs, K¡l£ M¢r Pa¶h¡n, and Sav¡¢ Bhoj's mare B¡vl¢ Gho·¢ in captivity. In the lower section of the pa¤ there is the court of P¢lod¡ (L 15.23,1-3) ruled by the Kumh¡r king of Pilod¡. He is depicted here with Devn¡r¡ya¸'s brother Bh£¸¡j¢, other Sird¡rs, and the Baga¤¡vats' elephant Jayma´gal¡ H¡th¢ in captivity. Above this there is the court of the Bh¢l King Dhundhu (L21-23,6-8) who is shown seated together with Bh£¸¡j¢, and Nev¡j¢'s⁵² mare Bor Gho·¢ in captivity. Located in the upper part of the left half of the pa¤ is the court of the king of Bh£¡l. (L 12-19,10-15), whose daughter is R¡¸¢ Jaimat¢. Scenes around the court show R¡¸¢ Jaimat¢ conducting marriage rites with Sav¡¢ Bhoj's sword, marrying the R¡¸¡ in public, and Sav¡¢ Bhoj striking down the marriage emblem (tora¸) (L 9,16) hung over the gateway to Bh£¡l. The places located in the lower middle section of the pa¤ beneath Devn¡r¡ya¸ and his brother's court are once again closely related to Devn¡r¡ya¸'s life. However, here it is not the past that is being represented, but the present, and in fact a time after Devn¡r¡ya¸ has left the earth and departed to Baiku¸¶h. The places depicted in this area are Devn¡r¡ya¸'s palace, Khe·¡ Causl¡, and most importantly Dem¡l¢ (R l-4, 3-4). Dem¡l¢ is represented in terms of two upright slabs of brick flanked by Devn¡r¡ya¸'s children B¢l¡ and B¢l¢. As pointed out above, the bricks are the signs left behind by Devn¡r¡ya¸. It is through these that he, and his wife P¢palde are worshipped in shrines and temples. The other places in this area are Devn¡r¡ya¸'s elder brother, Med£ji's R¡vl¡ (landlord's mansion), Sa·£ M¡t¡'s palace, and the town of C¡mp¡nehr¢. Towards the right of the lower middle section we have R¡¶hor¡ k¢ Tal¡v, and Gudal¢y¡ Tal¡v (R25-29,1-3). Gudal¢y¡ Tal¡v significance lies in its being situated on the border between Khe·¡ Causl¡ and R¡¸. This provides us with the transition to the right half of the pa¤ which, as has been mentioned above, is occupied by Devn¡r¡ya¸'s enemies, the R¡¸¡ and his generals.

The far right of the pa¤ is reserved for R¡¸ City (R46-55,8-12) which comprises of Nolkh¡ B¡g (R46-55,4-8), the Urdu Bazaar (R42,7), P¡t£ Ka½¡l¢'s brewery (R48-53,1-4), the Queen's palaces (R46-55,12-14), and R¡t¡ Ko¶ (the red fort) (R46-55,14-17). Interspersed between Khe·¡ Causl¡ and R¡¸ are the kingdom of Kharn¡r, the Kh¡r¢ River (R35-40,1-2), R¡t¡ Devr¡, R¡yal¡, Nekdiy¡ G¡v, Rup¡yl¢, C¡nd¡r£n and Baga¤¡vat¡ k¢ B¡v·¢. These are locations that primarily concern events in the lives of the Baga¤¡vats. On the right side of the pa¤ - which again is to Devn¡r¡ya¸'s left - there is, as already mentioned, a concentration of places and events connected with his enemies R¡vj¢ and his generals. Many of the events depicted here involve violent encounters of one kind or another. There are outright battle scenes: warriors''heads are shown severed or about to be severed; pieces of human bodies- arms, hands, legs, heads, torsos are shown scattered on the banks of the Kh¡r¢ River; and, last but not least, Queen Jaimat¢ is shown revealing her awesome form as Bhav¡n¢. (R25-29,13-19). Squatting on the grounds of the final bloody battle between the Baga¤¡vats and the R¡¸¡, she wears a necklace of the brothers' heads and arms. The right half of the pa¤ is thus concerned with violence, confrontation, and with sacred power issuing from particular acts of violence. This is the religious power that manifests through the acts of jh£jh¡rs and sat¢s in the sacrificial arena of battle. This half of the pa¤ thus powerfully articulates one of the two ways in which sacred power is constructed in the narrative.⁵³

While the middle of the pa¤ is reserved the paramount figure of divine power, the right half is concerned with the depiction of the central place of political power in the narrative, namely the City of R¡¸, and R¡t¡ko¶ or the red fort which is the headquarter of the R¡¸¡. A large area is devoted to the many components of the R¡¸¡'s territory like those mentioned above: the garden of Nolkh¡, the brewery of P¡t£, the queen's palaces, and the main market place. Apart from these "secular" locations, on the right side of the pa¤ battles are lost while at the same time revenge is taken and ancestors redeemed. If anything, the right side of the pa¤ is dominated by the various acts, the various associates, and the various enemies of the Baga¤¡vats. It is the region where heroes meet as allies only to break up as enemies. It is the place where violence is celebrated; where death, war, and dismemberment are "sacred". Here the visual narrative of the pa¤ does not concern itself with the establishment of a divine itinerary like in the sections directly adjacent to Devn¡r¡ya¸ on the left half of the pa¤. The visual narrative here focuses on geographically and therefore spatially distinct sites connected by the language of conflict and "sacrifice".

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